2. Materials and methods

The primary method for describing and implementing IoT systems in building management is an approach based on a three-layer reference architecture, which allows for the systematization of data flow from the physical sensor to the final management application.

1. Perception Layer (Sensing Layer): Includes the hardware components of the system, such as temperature and humidity sensors, gas detectors, energy meters, and actuators (e.g., valve controllers). This method relies on continuous sampling of analog signals and their conversion into digital form.
2. Network Layer: Responsible for secure data transmission. It utilizes short-range wireless communication methods (ZigBee, Bluetooth Mesh) and long-range, low-power methods (LoRaWAN). The use of Network Gateways is key here, as they aggregate data and transmit it to central units.
3. Application and Processing Layer: Utilizes analytical methods, including Cloud Computing and Edge Computing. This allows for data visualization in control panels and automated control decision-making.

The use of the Internet of Things in construction is a process that transforms static objects into “living” organisms that react to data. Below are the areas that currently define trends in the industry:

Office buildings: In modern high-class office buildings, IoT serves not only to save money but primarily to improve employee comfort:

• Smart lighting: IoT systems adjust the color temperature of light (from cool blue in the morning to warm yellow in the afternoon), which regulates the circadian rhythm of employees and increases their focus.
• Heatmaps analysis: Managers can see which parts of the office gather the most people, allowing for better planning of cleaning or other activities.
• Arc fault detection: Advanced sensors in electrical switchboards detect anomalies that could lead to fire, disconnecting the power supply in milliseconds.

Logistics centers and warehouses: Warehouses, especially high-storage ones or those handling food/medicine, rely on precision:

• Smart Zoning: HVAC systems do not cool the entire facility, but only the zones where employees are currently present or where goods requiring low temperatures are stored.
• Supply chain monitoring: IoT sensors on racks and loading docks integrate with building systems, automatically opening ramps and adjusting ventilation to the traffic intensity of forklifts.

Residential construction (Smart Home / Smart Building): Here, IoT focuses on security and convenience (user experience):

• Predictive failure detection: Flood sensors integrated with ball valves can automatically shut off the water supply in the entire riser before property damage occurs.
• Access management: Virtual keys sent to tenants' smartphones replace physical keys and increase security by logging every entry into the building.

Healthcare buildings and hospitals (Smart Healthcare): This is one of the most critical areas where IoT saves lives:

• Asset Tracking: Real-time location of medical equipment (e.g., ventilators, defibrillators) on the building plan, which shortens staff response time.
• Monitoring environmental parameters in operating rooms: Precise control of overpressure in rooms to prevent microorganisms from entering from corridors.

The most important communication standards that form the “building material” of modern building networks include:

• BACnet Protocol (Building Automation and Control networks): A global ISO standard for building automation, enabling the interoperability of devices from different manufacturers in a single network.
• MQTT Protocol (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): A lightweight data transmission protocol, ideal for devices with limited computing power and unstable links, commonly used in wireless sensors.

Main areas of application include:

• Energy management (Smart Metering): Precise monitoring of utility consumption broken down by individual floors or tenants.
• Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) optimization: Dynamic regulation of air composition and lighting.
• Space Optimization: Analysis of conference room and “hot-desking” utilization based on data from occupancy sensors.

Implementing methods based on the Internet of Things involves balancing operational benefits against technical risks.

To ensure the management system is reliable, sensor calibration methods and data cleaning algorithms are applied. These remove “noise” and erroneous readings that could lead to incorrect reactions from executive systems (e.g., unnecessary activation of heating due to a faulty temperature reading).